diff --git a/src/config/redact-snapshot.test.ts b/src/config/redact-snapshot.test.ts
index 96e98bf3b9d..84b03c2e76b 100644
--- a/src/config/redact-snapshot.test.ts
+++ b/src/config/redact-snapshot.test.ts
@@ -408,15 +408,15 @@ describe("redactConfigSnapshot", () => {
           custom2: [{ mySecret: "this-is-a-custom-secret-value" }],
         }),
         assert: ({ redacted, restored }) => {
-          const cfg = redacted as Record<string, Record<string, unknown>>;
-          const cfgCustom2 = cfg.custom2 as unknown as unknown[];
+          const cfg = redacted;
+          const cfgCustom2 = Array.isArray(cfg.custom2) ? cfg.custom2 : [];
           expect(cfgCustom2.length).toBeGreaterThan(0);
           expect(
             ((cfg.custom1 as Record<string, unknown>).anykey as Record<string, unknown>).mySecret,
           ).toBe(REDACTED_SENTINEL);
           expect((cfgCustom2[0] as Record<string, unknown>).mySecret).toBe(REDACTED_SENTINEL);
-          const out = restored as Record<string, Record<string, unknown>>;
-          const outCustom2 = out.custom2 as unknown as unknown[];
+          const out = restored;
+          const outCustom2 = Array.isArray(out.custom2) ? out.custom2 : [];
           expect(outCustom2.length).toBeGreaterThan(0);
           expect(
             ((out.custom1 as Record<string, unknown>).anykey as Record<string, unknown>).mySecret,
@@ -437,15 +437,15 @@ describe("redactConfigSnapshot", () => {
           custom2: [{ mySecret: "this-is-a-custom-secret-value" }],
         }),
         assert: ({ redacted, restored }) => {
-          const cfg = redacted as Record<string, Record<string, unknown>>;
-          const cfgCustom2 = cfg.custom2 as unknown as unknown[];
+          const cfg = redacted;
+          const cfgCustom2 = Array.isArray(cfg.custom2) ? cfg.custom2 : [];
           expect(cfgCustom2.length).toBeGreaterThan(0);
           expect(
             ((cfg.custom1 as Record<string, unknown>).anykey as Record<string, unknown>).mySecret,
           ).toBe(REDACTED_SENTINEL);
           expect((cfgCustom2[0] as Record<string, unknown>).mySecret).toBe(REDACTED_SENTINEL);
-          const out = restored as Record<string, Record<string, unknown>>;
-          const outCustom2 = out.custom2 as unknown as unknown[];
+          const out = restored;
+          const outCustom2 = Array.isArray(out.custom2) ? out.custom2 : [];
           expect(outCustom2.length).toBeGreaterThan(0);
           expect(
             ((out.custom1 as Record<string, unknown>).anykey as Record<string, unknown>).mySecret,
diff --git a/src/discord/monitor.test.ts b/src/discord/monitor.test.ts
index 29d9690f423..4a0e95e5cd8 100644
--- a/src/discord/monitor.test.ts
+++ b/src/discord/monitor.test.ts
@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 import { ChannelType, type Guild } from "@buape/carbon";
 import { describe, expect, it, vi } from "vitest";
+import { typedCases } from "../test-utils/typed-cases.js";
 import {
   allowListMatches,
   buildDiscordMediaPayload,
@@ -637,7 +638,11 @@ describe("discord autoThread name sanitization", () => {
 
 describe("discord reaction notification gating", () => {
   it("applies mode-specific reaction notification rules", () => {
-    const cases = [
+    const cases = typedCases<{
+      name: string;
+      input: Parameters<typeof shouldEmitDiscordReactionNotification>[0];
+      expected: boolean;
+    }>([
       {
         name: "unset defaults to own (author is bot)",
         input: {
@@ -721,7 +726,7 @@ describe("discord reaction notification gating", () => {
         },
         expected: true,
       },
-    ] as const;
+    ]);
 
     for (const testCase of cases) {
       expect(
@@ -963,7 +968,18 @@ describe("discord reaction notification modes", () => {
   const guild = fakeGuild(guildId, "Mode Guild");
 
   it("applies message-fetch behavior across notification modes and channel types", async () => {
-    const cases = [
+    const cases = typedCases<{
+      name: string;
+      reactionNotifications: "off" | "all" | "allowlist" | "own";
+      users: string[] | undefined;
+      userId: string | undefined;
+      channelType: ChannelType;
+      channelId: string | undefined;
+      parentId: string | undefined;
+      messageAuthorId: string;
+      expectedMessageFetchCalls: number;
+      expectedEnqueueCalls: number;
+    }>([
       {
         name: "off mode",
         reactionNotifications: "off" as const,
@@ -1024,7 +1040,7 @@ describe("discord reaction notification modes", () => {
         expectedMessageFetchCalls: 0,
         expectedEnqueueCalls: 1,
       },
-    ] as const;
+    ]);
 
     for (const testCase of cases) {
       enqueueSystemEventSpy.mockClear();
diff --git a/src/infra/heartbeat-runner.returns-default-unset.test.ts b/src/infra/heartbeat-runner.returns-default-unset.test.ts
index 9dd7a025b8d..fcc8fae9678 100644
--- a/src/infra/heartbeat-runner.returns-default-unset.test.ts
+++ b/src/infra/heartbeat-runner.returns-default-unset.test.ts
@@ -15,9 +15,10 @@ import {
 import { getActivePluginRegistry, setActivePluginRegistry } from "../plugins/runtime.js";
 import { buildAgentPeerSessionKey } from "../routing/session-key.js";
 import { createOutboundTestPlugin, createTestRegistry } from "../test-utils/channel-plugins.js";
+import { typedCases } from "../test-utils/typed-cases.js";
 import {
-  isHeartbeatEnabledForAgent,
   type HeartbeatDeps,
+  isHeartbeatEnabledForAgent,
   resolveHeartbeatIntervalMs,
   resolveHeartbeatPrompt,
   runHeartbeatOnce,
@@ -680,7 +681,15 @@ describe("runHeartbeatOnce", () => {
   it("resolves configured and forced session key overrides", async () => {
     const replySpy = vi.spyOn(replyModule, "getReplyFromConfig");
     try {
-      const cases = [
+      const cases = typedCases<{
+        name: string;
+        caseDir: string;
+        peerKind: "group" | "direct";
+        peerId: string;
+        message: string;
+        applyOverride: (params: { cfg: OpenClawConfig; sessionKey: string }) => void;
+        runOptions: (params: { sessionKey: string }) => { sessionKey?: string };
+      }>([
         {
           name: "heartbeat.session",
           caseDir: "hb-explicit-session",
@@ -705,7 +714,7 @@ describe("runHeartbeatOnce", () => {
           applyOverride: () => {},
           runOptions: ({ sessionKey }: { sessionKey: string }) => ({ sessionKey }),
         },
-      ] as const;
+      ]);
 
       for (const testCase of cases) {
         const tmpDir = await createCaseDir(testCase.caseDir);
@@ -835,12 +844,12 @@ describe("runHeartbeatOnce", () => {
   it("handles reasoning payload delivery variants", async () => {
     const replySpy = vi.spyOn(replyModule, "getReplyFromConfig");
     try {
-      const cases: Array<{
+      const cases = typedCases<{
         name: string;
         caseDir: string;
         replies: Array<{ text: string }>;
         expectedTexts: string[];
-      }> = [
+      }>([
         {
           name: "reasoning + final payload",
           caseDir: "hb-reasoning",
@@ -853,7 +862,7 @@ describe("runHeartbeatOnce", () => {
           replies: [{ text: "Reasoning:\n_Because it helps_" }, { text: "HEARTBEAT_OK" }],
           expectedTexts: ["Reasoning:\n_Because it helps_"],
         },
-      ];
+      ]);
 
       for (const testCase of cases) {
         const tmpDir = await createCaseDir(testCase.caseDir);
diff --git a/src/infra/outbound/envelope.ts b/src/infra/outbound/envelope.ts
index cea05f56685..9cd9f84aba3 100644
--- a/src/infra/outbound/envelope.ts
+++ b/src/infra/outbound/envelope.ts
@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ export type OutboundResultEnvelope = {
 };
 
 type BuildEnvelopeParams = {
-  payloads?: ReplyPayload[] | OutboundPayloadJson[];
+  payloads?: readonly ReplyPayload[] | readonly OutboundPayloadJson[];
   meta?: unknown;
   delivery?: OutboundDeliveryJson;
   flattenDelivery?: boolean;
@@ -29,8 +29,8 @@ export function buildOutboundResultEnvelope(
       : params.payloads.length === 0
         ? []
         : isOutboundPayloadJson(params.payloads[0])
-          ? (params.payloads as OutboundPayloadJson[])
-          : normalizeOutboundPayloadsForJson(params.payloads as ReplyPayload[]);
+          ? [...(params.payloads as readonly OutboundPayloadJson[])]
+          : normalizeOutboundPayloadsForJson(params.payloads as readonly ReplyPayload[]);
 
   if (params.flattenDelivery !== false && params.delivery && !params.meta && !hasPayloads) {
     return params.delivery;
diff --git a/src/infra/outbound/outbound.test.ts b/src/infra/outbound/outbound.test.ts
index e273bc51441..f07aff99054 100644
--- a/src/infra/outbound/outbound.test.ts
+++ b/src/infra/outbound/outbound.test.ts
@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@ import type { ReplyPayload } from "../../auto-reply/types.js";
 import type { OpenClawConfig } from "../../config/config.js";
 import { setActivePluginRegistry } from "../../plugins/runtime.js";
 import { createTestRegistry } from "../../test-utils/channel-plugins.js";
+import { typedCases } from "../../test-utils/typed-cases.js";
 import {
   ackDelivery,
   computeBackoffMs,
@@ -447,7 +448,11 @@ describe("buildOutboundResultEnvelope", () => {
       mediaUrl: null,
       channelId: "C1",
     };
-    const cases = [
+    const cases = typedCases<{
+      name: string;
+      input: Parameters<typeof buildOutboundResultEnvelope>[0];
+      expected: unknown;
+    }>([
       {
         name: "flatten delivery by default",
         input: { delivery: whatsappDelivery },
@@ -478,7 +483,7 @@ describe("buildOutboundResultEnvelope", () => {
         input: { delivery: discordDelivery, flattenDelivery: false },
         expected: { delivery: discordDelivery },
       },
-    ];
+    ]);
     for (const testCase of cases) {
       const input: Parameters<typeof buildOutboundResultEnvelope>[0] =
         "payloads" in testCase.input
@@ -814,7 +819,10 @@ describe("resolveOutboundSessionRoute", () => {
 
 describe("normalizeOutboundPayloadsForJson", () => {
   it("normalizes payloads for JSON output", () => {
-    const cases = [
+    const cases = typedCases<{
+      input: Parameters<typeof normalizeOutboundPayloadsForJson>[0];
+      expected: ReturnType<typeof normalizeOutboundPayloadsForJson>;
+    }>([
       {
         input: [
           { text: "hi" },
@@ -852,7 +860,7 @@ describe("normalizeOutboundPayloadsForJson", () => {
           },
         ],
       },
-    ];
+    ]);
 
     for (const testCase of cases) {
       const input: ReplyPayload[] = testCase.input.map((payload) =>
@@ -878,7 +886,11 @@ describe("normalizeOutboundPayloads", () => {
 
 describe("formatOutboundPayloadLog", () => {
   it("formats text+media and media-only logs", () => {
-    const cases = [
+    const cases = typedCases<{
+      name: string;
+      input: Parameters<typeof formatOutboundPayloadLog>[0];
+      expected: string;
+    }>([
       {
         name: "text with media lines",
         input: {
@@ -895,7 +907,7 @@ describe("formatOutboundPayloadLog", () => {
         },
         expected: "MEDIA:https://x.test/a.png",
       },
-    ];
+    ]);
 
     for (const testCase of cases) {
       expect(
diff --git a/src/infra/outbound/payloads.ts b/src/infra/outbound/payloads.ts
index 888f3624e1c..f61261939c1 100644
--- a/src/infra/outbound/payloads.ts
+++ b/src/infra/outbound/payloads.ts
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ export type OutboundPayloadJson = {
   channelData?: Record<string, unknown>;
 };
 
-function mergeMediaUrls(...lists: Array<Array<string | undefined> | undefined>): string[] {
+function mergeMediaUrls(...lists: Array<ReadonlyArray<string | undefined> | undefined>): string[] {
   const seen = new Set<string>();
   const merged: string[] = [];
   for (const list of lists) {
@@ -37,7 +37,9 @@ function mergeMediaUrls(...lists: Array<Array<string | undefined> | undefined>):
   return merged;
 }
 
-export function normalizeReplyPayloadsForDelivery(payloads: ReplyPayload[]): ReplyPayload[] {
+export function normalizeReplyPayloadsForDelivery(
+  payloads: readonly ReplyPayload[],
+): ReplyPayload[] {
   return payloads.flatMap((payload) => {
     const parsed = parseReplyDirectives(payload.text ?? "");
     const explicitMediaUrls = payload.mediaUrls ?? parsed.mediaUrls;
@@ -68,7 +70,9 @@ export function normalizeReplyPayloadsForDelivery(payloads: ReplyPayload[]): Rep
   });
 }
 
-export function normalizeOutboundPayloads(payloads: ReplyPayload[]): NormalizedOutboundPayload[] {
+export function normalizeOutboundPayloads(
+  payloads: readonly ReplyPayload[],
+): NormalizedOutboundPayload[] {
   return normalizeReplyPayloadsForDelivery(payloads)
     .map((payload) => {
       const channelData = payload.channelData;
@@ -89,7 +93,9 @@ export function normalizeOutboundPayloads(payloads: ReplyPayload[]): NormalizedO
     );
 }
 
-export function normalizeOutboundPayloadsForJson(payloads: ReplyPayload[]): OutboundPayloadJson[] {
+export function normalizeOutboundPayloadsForJson(
+  payloads: readonly ReplyPayload[],
+): OutboundPayloadJson[] {
   return normalizeReplyPayloadsForDelivery(payloads).map((payload) => ({
     text: payload.text ?? "",
     mediaUrl: payload.mediaUrl ?? null,
@@ -98,7 +104,11 @@ export function normalizeOutboundPayloadsForJson(payloads: ReplyPayload[]): Outb
   }));
 }
 
-export function formatOutboundPayloadLog(payload: NormalizedOutboundPayload): string {
+export function formatOutboundPayloadLog(
+  payload: Pick<NormalizedOutboundPayload, "text" | "channelData"> & {
+    mediaUrls: readonly string[];
+  },
+): string {
   const lines: string[] = [];
   if (payload.text) {
     lines.push(payload.text.trimEnd());
diff --git a/src/telegram/button-types.ts b/src/telegram/button-types.ts
index 09c687b3320..922b72acd9f 100644
--- a/src/telegram/button-types.ts
+++ b/src/telegram/button-types.ts
@@ -6,4 +6,4 @@ export type TelegramInlineButton = {
   style?: TelegramButtonStyle;
 };
 
-export type TelegramInlineButtons = TelegramInlineButton[][];
+export type TelegramInlineButtons = ReadonlyArray<ReadonlyArray<TelegramInlineButton>>;
diff --git a/src/telegram/format.wrap-md.test.ts b/src/telegram/format.wrap-md.test.ts
index 37ef4e80916..d059f950cae 100644
--- a/src/telegram/format.wrap-md.test.ts
+++ b/src/telegram/format.wrap-md.test.ts
@@ -237,12 +237,12 @@ describe("edge cases", () => {
     ] as const;
     for (const testCase of cases) {
       const result = markdownToTelegramHtml(testCase.input);
-      if ("contains" in testCase) {
+      if ("contains" in testCase && testCase.contains) {
         for (const expected of testCase.contains) {
           expect(result, testCase.name).toContain(expected);
         }
       }
-      if ("notContains" in testCase) {
+      if ("notContains" in testCase && testCase.notContains) {
         for (const unexpected of testCase.notContains) {
           expect(result, testCase.name).not.toContain(unexpected);
         }
@@ -301,7 +301,7 @@ describe("edge cases", () => {
       if ("expectedExact" in testCase) {
         expect(result, testCase.name).toBe(testCase.expectedExact);
       }
-      if ("contains" in testCase) {
+      if ("contains" in testCase && testCase.contains) {
         for (const expected of testCase.contains) {
           expect(result, testCase.name).toContain(expected);
         }
diff --git a/src/telegram/model-buttons.ts b/src/telegram/model-buttons.ts
index 03f74dae918..86e54a07524 100644
--- a/src/telegram/model-buttons.ts
+++ b/src/telegram/model-buttons.ts
@@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ export type ProviderInfo = {
 
 export type ModelsKeyboardParams = {
   provider: string;
-  models: string[];
+  models: readonly string[];
   currentModel?: string;
   currentPage: number;
   totalPages: number;
diff --git a/src/telegram/send.test.ts b/src/telegram/send.test.ts
index 4abccf8290d..6eb633e5445 100644
--- a/src/telegram/send.test.ts
+++ b/src/telegram/send.test.ts
@@ -596,22 +596,22 @@ describe("sendMessageTelegram", () => {
         fileName: "video.mp4",
       });
 
-      const opts: Parameters<typeof sendMessageTelegram>[2] = {
+      const sendOptions: NonNullable<Parameters<typeof sendMessageTelegram>[2]> = {
         token: "tok",
         api,
         mediaUrl: "https://example.com/video.mp4",
         asVideoNote: true,
-        ...("replyToMessageId" in testCase.options
-          ? { replyToMessageId: testCase.options.replyToMessageId }
-          : {}),
-        ...(Array.isArray(testCase.options.buttons)
-          ? {
-              buttons: testCase.options.buttons.map((row) => row.map((button) => ({ ...button }))),
-            }
-          : {}),
       };
-
-      await sendMessageTelegram(chatId, testCase.text, opts);
+      if (
+        "replyToMessageId" in testCase.options &&
+        testCase.options.replyToMessageId !== undefined
+      ) {
+        sendOptions.replyToMessageId = testCase.options.replyToMessageId;
+      }
+      if ("buttons" in testCase.options && testCase.options.buttons) {
+        sendOptions.buttons = testCase.options.buttons;
+      }
+      await sendMessageTelegram(chatId, testCase.text, sendOptions);
 
       expect(sendVideoNote).toHaveBeenCalledWith(
         chatId,
@@ -790,8 +790,12 @@ describe("sendMessageTelegram", () => {
         api,
         mediaUrl: testCase.mediaUrl,
         ...("asVoice" in testCase && testCase.asVoice ? { asVoice: true } : {}),
-        ...("messageThreadId" in testCase ? { messageThreadId: testCase.messageThreadId } : {}),
-        ...("replyToMessageId" in testCase ? { replyToMessageId: testCase.replyToMessageId } : {}),
+        ...("messageThreadId" in testCase && testCase.messageThreadId !== undefined
+          ? { messageThreadId: testCase.messageThreadId }
+          : {}),
+        ...("replyToMessageId" in testCase && testCase.replyToMessageId !== undefined
+          ? { replyToMessageId: testCase.replyToMessageId }
+          : {}),
       });
 
       const called = testCase.expectedMethod === "sendVoice" ? sendVoice : sendAudio;
@@ -1321,13 +1325,13 @@ describe("editMessageTelegram", () => {
       if ("firstExpectNoReplyMarkup" in testCase && testCase.firstExpectNoReplyMarkup) {
         expect(firstParams, testCase.name).not.toHaveProperty("reply_markup");
       }
-      if ("firstExpectReplyMarkup" in testCase) {
+      if ("firstExpectReplyMarkup" in testCase && testCase.firstExpectReplyMarkup) {
         expect(firstParams, testCase.name).toEqual(
           expect.objectContaining({ reply_markup: testCase.firstExpectReplyMarkup }),
         );
       }
 
-      if ("secondExpectReplyMarkup" in testCase) {
+      if ("secondExpectReplyMarkup" in testCase && testCase.secondExpectReplyMarkup) {
         const secondParams = (botApi.editMessageText.mock.calls[1] ?? [])[3] as Record<
           string,
           unknown
diff --git a/src/test-utils/typed-cases.ts b/src/test-utils/typed-cases.ts
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..41fb0b47b2a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/test-utils/typed-cases.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+export function typedCases<T>(cases: T[]): T[] {
+  return cases;
+}